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The Maravi empire was a Chewa people polity that controlled what is now central and southern Malawi, parts of Mozambique, and eastern Zambia, from at least the early 15th century to the mid-19th century. In the 17th century, the empire extended westwards to the Luangwa River, northwards to Nkhotakota, and southwards to the Zambezi, with its influence stretching eastwards to Mozambique Island and Quelimane.
The Banda clan and other smaller ones arrived in Malawi from Katanga (a region to the northwest) in the 12th or 13th century, and are called the Pre-Maravi. The Phiri clan adopted kingship, led by the Kalonga, and arrived in Malawi later; they are termed the Maravi. After reaching Msinja, the Maravi integrated the Pre-Maravi's sociopolitical organisation. As the Maravi continued their migration, two relatives of the Kalonga, Kaphiti and Lundu, left following a succession dispute to establish their own kingdoms. The Maravi state expanded through the Kalonga sending relatives to found new subordinate polities. After the Maravi settled at Mankhamba, another succession dispute caused Undi to leave and establish his own kingdom, accompanied by the royal family. Lundu allied with the Zimba invasions, a militaristic group, in the late 16th century. In the 17th century, Kalonga Muzura expanded the empire and conquered Lundu's polity, however failed to expel the Portuguese from the region. In the 18th century, the system of succession broke down as a long-term consequence of Nyangu and the royal family's departure, leading to internal conflict and disintegration. This was exacerbated in the 19th century by frequent slave raiding from Yao chiefs, culminating in the death of the last Kalonga, Sosola, in battle in the late 1860s. The Chewa Royal Establishment, a non-sovereign monarchy centred in eastern Zambia, claims continuation of Undi's dynasty.
The empire was headed by the Kalonga, with other leaders paying tribute, often in the form of ivory. Titles were governed by the institutions of positional succession and perpetual kinship. Various Chewa religious institutions were utilised to foster unity in the state, such as the Mlira, which involved royal family heads convening on the capital to venerate the spirit of the Kalonga that led the Maravi's migration. The head of the Phiri clan was the mother or sister of the Kalonga, holding the title of Nyangu. While the Kalonga held secular authority, the Makewana priestess, as head of the Banda clan and of the Pre-Maravi, held ritual authority. The Makewana was in charge of the rainmaking shrine at Kaphirintiwa Hill. The economy consisted of both Arable land and Pastoralism agriculture. Linkage to both African and Indian Ocean long-distance trade facilitated the export of Machila and iron tools and import of glass beads and copper.
Tradition continues with the Maravi finally reaching Msinja, where they met the Pre-Maravi, led by the Makewana. As invaders, the Kalonga aimed to destroy the Pre-Maravi's political organisation by attacking the shrine on Kaphirintiwa Hill, but the shrine was difficult to reach and fiercely defended. In his defeat, the Kalonga accepted the Makewana's ritual authority, taking her secular authority, and it was established that the Banda clan would provide the Kalonga's principal wife (titled Mwali). The Pre-Maravi's socio-political organisation was incorporated into the Maravi state. Possibly due to concerns about causing friction with the Pre-Maravi, the Maravi continued their migration, stopping at Mawere a Nyangu for a long time. A dispute arose around the practise of dark magic, and the poison mwavi was distributed in order to kill the culprit, but many innocent people died. Two relatives of the Kalonga, Kaphiti and Lundu, were thought to be the culprits, which caused a dispute between Changamire (the Kalonga's brother) and Kaphiti. Possibly after a succession dispute, Kaphiti and Lundu broke away to the south to establish their own kingdoms. The Kalonga sent Changamire south to expand the state and found new settlements, as he intended to migrate north. After their population outgrew the land at Mawere a Nyangu, they finally moved onto Msangu wa Machete, which was near the Nadzipulu River (in Dedza District) and Lake Malawi. According to Ntara's Mbiri ya Achewa, the Banda built their village called Mankhamba and the Phiri built theirs called Malawi. Archaeological research indicates that Mankhamba was settled (likely by the Pre-Maravi) between the 12th and 14th centuries, and the Maravi were very likely present there from at least the mid-15th century due to evidence of long-distance trade. Juwayeyi considers Mankhamba to have been Kalonga's capital; however, Kings M. Phiri thought it to have been Manthimba. The area southwest of Lake Malawi became the new homeland of the Maravi.
A son of Kalonga, Mkadzula of the Mwale clan, left Mankhamba to settle in the Tonga lands (modern-day Salima District) and bore the title Kanyenda. He was initially accompanied with Kabunduli, who split from Mkadzula at Nkhotakota and is said to have united various Tonga groups under his control. Traditions on Mkanda Mbewe, possibly another son of Kalonga, differ, likely influenced by interactions with invaders in the 19th century. The first tradition says Mkanda was more important than Undi, saying that Undi walked while Mkanda was carried in a hammock, though other traditions say this was because of an injury. Some traditions say Mkanda was sent to Bunda, and later Kasungu. Accordingly, he left after a dispute with Mwase and settled in Mchinji after defeating Akafula warriors, only making contact with Undi after. However, traditions from Undi's area say Mkanda was sent to Mchinji by Undi, only becoming independent later. The Kalonga's power and wealth grew as relatives sent ivory as tribute, which was processed at Mankhamba.
The first Kaphiti and first Lundu had settled southwest either near Utale or the Wankurumadzi River (in modern-day Mwanza District and Neno District districts), coming to rule over the Chipeta (regional proto-Chewa) there. Kaphiti grew powerful, extending over the Lower Shire River, the Shire Highlands, Mulanje, and areas in modern-day Mozambique. Later, Lundu left to establish his own kingdom further south at Mbewe near Chiromo. Supported by the rainmaking cult of Mbona and controlling the Mbona shrine at Nsanje, his power grew to eclipse that of Kaphiti (who had disappeared by the 16th century) owing to wealth accumulated from trade along the Zambezi, and he extended his influence over the Lower Zambezi Valley. Lundu allied with the Zimba invasions and expanded eastwards into Makua people and Lolo lands, and some Makua and Lolo Village head were made tributaries alongside Maravi chiefs. The Zimba went on to defeat the Portuguese in 1592 and 1593, and sack Kilwa Kisiwani and Mombasa; however, they were eventually defeated by Malindi Kingdom and the Segeju people.
The Maravi engaged in trade both locally and in the wider Indian Ocean trade. Muzura was a Kalonga revered in Portuguese records; his identity has been debated. Undi had the choice of the Kalonga's successors, and, according to Juwayeyi, Muzura was originally part of the royalty at Mano. Portuguese reports say that he led workers on a settler's plantation and was a renowned hunter. He aided the Portuguese in defeating the rivals of the Mwenemutapa, Gatsi Rusere, in 1608. Juwayeyi says that Muzura had a second capital in the Mwanza Region–Neno District region, closer to the Zambezi, where, in 1616, he provided hospitality to Portuguese traveller Gaspar Bocarro, who wrote the first historical account of Maravi. In 1622, Muzura defeated Lundu with the help of the Portuguese, becoming the undisputed ruler of the region. Under Muzura, trade flourished and the Maravi grew very wealthy. In 1629, Muzura allied with Mwenemutapa Kapararidze, Gatsi Rusere's successor, aiming to expel the Portuguese from Zambezia. However, Muzura's attack on Quelimane was unsuccessful. Portuguese records in 1635 described Muzura as cunning and very powerful, and he died in the 1640s.
From the early 19th century, the Yao led slave raids into the southern region around Lake Malawi, often using guns, which devastated Chewa communities. Slaves were sold to Arabs or Swahili people traders, and some Chewa chiefs engaged in the trade due to how profitable it was. Foreign traders dealt directly with lesser chiefs, empowering them and disrupting the hierarchical system of authority. The 1820s saw a great famine. Around 1837, the Ngoni people arrived in the region from Mozambique, having fled the Mfecane, and also engaged in raiding the Chewa. The Chewa became a series of independent villages, militarily disorganised and often hostile to one another. During the Kalonga's decline, the northern polities of Mkanda, Mwase, and Kanyenda became more influential.
The last Kalonga was Sosola, who was of the Phiri clan and a descendant of Nyangu. With the help of four chiefs—three of which were Yao, with one called Mnanula—he defeated Kalonga Kampini, whose rule was said to be illegitimate as he was not of the Phiri clan, and usurped the title. The Yao chiefs began raiding the Maravi, which Sosola lacked the military capacity to prevent. Instead he made diplomatic efforts, but the Ngoni refused to help him. He turned to a Yao group led by Msamala and his son Mponda, who accepted his request and defeated the group led by Mnanula. However, they too began slave raiding, forcing Sosola to leave and settle near Mankhamba and Mnanula's settlement. Towards the end of the 1860s, a war broke out between Sosola and Mnanula, reportedly resulting in Mnanula shooting and killing Sosola, afterwards changing his name to Pemba in triumph. This saw the end of the position of Kalonga. In 1864, a blind and old Lundu was killed by some Makololo chiefs who had accompanied David Livingstone on his Zambezi expedition. Two decades later, the region was colonised by the British Empire, and the slave trade ended by the turn of the 20th century.
The Chewa Royal Establishment (or Chewa Kingdom), a non-sovereign monarchy seated in Katete in eastern Zambia and extending into Malawi and Mozambique, claims continuation of Undi's lineage and the Kalonga institution. The annual Kulamba festival, held in the last week of August, involves chiefs from Zambia, Malawi, and Mozambique convening at the paramount chief's palace to report to the Kalonga and defy colonial borders. Lundu's lineage also continues into modern times; from being a village headman in 1922, the Lundu was reinstated as the main traditional authority in the lower Shire River following Malawi's independence in 1964.
The state had regional chiefs called Mwini Dziko ("owner of the land"), and Kalonga gave some of the first chiefs a flywhisk, a sword or knife, and an iron stool as symbols of office. The delegated control to various sub-chiefs, who paid tribute to Kalonga, often in the form of ivory. The Kalonga consulted the , who in turn consulted court attendants or guardians (ankhoswe) and territorial chieftains (aphungu or mbili), who consulted lineage or village chiefs, who then consulted the people. Philosopher Grivas Kayange argues that this was a form of deliberative and agonistic democracy. Consensus was highly valued, as demonstrated by various proverbs, although people that were not members of the Nyau society were left out. The army was led by the Khombe, head of the Mwale clan. The Mkomba was the public executioner, and the Mgawi the land divider.
Mankhamba specialised in metallurgy, and the Maravi were well-known to groups including the Portuguese for their high-quality iron tools. Other than use for agriculture, iron tools were also used in manufacturing objects such as mats, mortars, pestles, drums, baskets, and canoes, according to Juwayeyi. Coppersmith was less common due to the lack of accessible copper deposits in the area. Other trades were house construction and the production of wicker objects, pottery, and cloth. Cloth included a type called dewere, made from bwazi; barkcloth made of Brachystegia]] bark; and cotton cloth, which gradually replaced the others. There were two types of wicker ware: nkeka, made from Hyphaene]], and mphasa, made from bango. Pottery was commonly produced, and ceramic pots likely by women only. Ivory was also processed at Mankhamba.
The Maravi traded locally as well as engaging in the Indian Ocean trade. Glass beads from Europe and Asia were a popular import, with Indian ones being favoured over European ones. Copper objects were imported from modern-day Zambia and DR Congo, and copper was used as a medium of exchange. Due to the Maravi originating from the copper-rich area of Katanga, they were likely familiar with copper workings. Chinese porcelain dating to the 16th century has been uncovered at Mankhamba. The Maravi exported iron tools, especially to the Portuguese, and cotton cloth called machila, which was cheaper and often preferred to Indian cloth due to its durability. Salt from Lake Malawi was also traded to the interior. There were plenty of elephants in the area, and ivory was a popular trade good. Firearms imported in the 19th century contributed to a rapid growth in elephant hunting.
Similar to wicker ware uses in recent times, mphasa was possibly used to cover the dead, and nkeka by women as seats for socialising. Likewise, the two types of baskets, dengu/mtanga and lichero, were possibly primarily used by women, and the deepest basket, mseche, used to store beer for celebrations and other village events. It was very common to smoke dagga and later tobacco, and smoking pipes were often decorated. Cattle were viewed as symbols of wealth and status. Women prepared plant foods while men prepared meats. Dogs were raised for hunting and companionship, and hunters provided sacrifices and carried charms and medicines for good luck and safety. Jewellery uncovered by archaeological research includes glass beads, copper rings, copper necklaces, and ivory .
| Portuguese records have Muzura as Kalonga at this time; however, Chewa traditions had no record of a Kalonga with that name | |
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